Vector Product
We have discovered how to construct a scalar from the components of two
general vectors
and
. Can we also construct a vector that is not
just a linear combination of
and
? Consider the following definition:
![$\displaystyle {\bf a} \ast{\bf b} \equiv (a_x \,b_x,\, a_y\, b_y,\, a_z \,b_z).$](img4601.png) |
(1.36) |
Is
a proper vector? Suppose that
,
. In this case,
.
However, if we rotate the coordinate axes through
about
then
,
,
and
. Thus,
does
not transform like a vector, because its magnitude depends on the choice of axes.
So, the previous definition is a bad one.
Consider, now, the cross product or vector product:
![$\displaystyle {\bf a}\times{\bf b} \equiv (a_y \, b_z-a_z\, b_y,\, a_z\, b_x - a_x\, b_z,\, a_x\, b_y - a_y\, b_x)
={\bf c}.$](img4609.png) |
(1.37) |
Does this rather unlikely combination transform like a vector? Let us try
rotating the coordinate axes through an angle
about
using Equations (A.20)–(A.22).
In the new coordinate system,
Thus, the
-component of
transforms correctly. It can
easily be shown that the other components transform correctly as well, and that
all components also transform correctly under rotation about
and
.
Thus,
is a proper vector. Incidentally,
is the only simple combination of the components of two vectors that transforms
like a vector (and is non-coplanar with
and
).
The cross product is
anticommutative,
![$\displaystyle {\bf a}\times{\bf b} = - {\bf b} \times{\bf a},$](img4614.png) |
(1.39) |
distributive,
![$\displaystyle {\bf a}\times({\bf b} +{\bf c})= {\bf a} \times{\bf b}+{\bf a}\times{\bf c},$](img4615.png) |
(1.40) |
but is not associative,
![$\displaystyle {\bf a}\times({\bf b} \times{\bf c})\neq ({\bf a}\times{\bf b}) \times{\bf c}.$](img4616.png) |
(1.41) |
The cross product transforms like a vector, which
means that it must have a well-defined direction and magnitude. We can show
that
is perpendicular to both
and
.
Consider
. If this is zero then the cross product
must be perpendicular to
. Now,
Therefore,
is perpendicular to
. Likewise, it can
be demonstrated that
is perpendicular to
.
The vectors
,
, and
form a right-handed
set, like the unit vectors
,
, and
. In fact,
. This defines a unique direction for
, which
is obtained from a right-hand rule. See Figure A.8.
Figure: A.8
The right-hand rule for cross products. Here,
is less that
.
|
Let us now evaluate the magnitude of
. We have
Thus,
![$\displaystyle \vert{\bf a}\times{\bf b}\vert = \vert{\bf a}\vert\,\vert{\bf b}\vert\,\sin\theta,$](img4627.png) |
(1.44) |
where
is the angle subtended between
and
.
Clearly,
for any vector, because
is always
zero in this case. Also, if
then either
,
, or
is parallel (or antiparallel) to
.
Consider the parallelogram defined by the vectors
and
. See Figure A.9.
The scalar area of the parallelogram is
. By convention, the vector area has the magnitude of the
scalar area, and is normal to the plane of the parallelogram, in the sense obtained from a right-hand circulation rule by rotating
on to
(through an acute angle); that is, if the fingers of the right-hand circulate in the direction of
rotation then the thumb of the right-hand indicates the direction of the vector area. So, the vector area is coming out of the
page in Figure A.9.
It follows that
![$\displaystyle {\bf S} = {\bf a}\times {\bf b},$](img4631.png) |
(1.45) |
Figure A.9:
A vector parallelogram.
|
Suppose that a force
is applied at position
. See Figure A.10.
The torque about the origin
is the product of the magnitude of the force and
the length of the lever arm
. Thus, the magnitude of the torque is
. The direction of the torque is conventionally defined as the direction of
the axis through
about which the force tries to rotate objects, in the sense
determined by a right-hand circulation rule. Hence, the torque is out of the page in Figure A.10.
It follows that the vector torque is
given by
![$\displaystyle \mbox{\boldmath$\tau$}$](img299.png) ![$\displaystyle = {\bf r}\times{\bf F}.$](img4635.png) |
(1.46) |
The angular momentum,
, of a particle of linear momentum
and position vector
is simply defined as the moment of its
momentum about the origin: that is,
![$\displaystyle {\bf l}={\bf r}\times {\bf p}.$](img4637.png) |
(1.47) |